Complete Indian Polity for UPSC, SSC, Railways, Law Entrance and other competitive Exams

1. CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

Historical background

Making of the Constitution

• Constituent Assembly formed: 1946.

• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan.

• First meeting: 9 December 1946.

• Temporary President: Sachchidananda Sinha.

• Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

• Constitutional Adviser: B.N. Rau.

• Drafting Committee formed: 29 August 1947.

• Chairman: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

• Constitution adopted: 26 November 1949.

• Constitution enforced: 26 January 1950.

• Time taken: 2 years, 11 months, 18 days.

• Original Constitution: 395 Articles, 22 Parts, 8 Schedules.

• Constitution Day: 26 November.

• Republic Day: 26 January.

Sources of the Indian Constitution

Salient features

1. Lengthiest written Constitution among major sovereign countries.

2. Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic.

3. Parliamentary form of government.

4. Federal system with unitary features.

5. Independent judiciary.

6. Fundamental Rights.

7. Directive Principles of State Policy.

8. Fundamental Duties.

9. Universal Adult Franchise.

10. Single citizenship.

11. Judicial Review.

12. Bicameral Parliament at the Union level.

2. PREAMBLE

• Based on the Objectives Resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru (1946).

• Adopted on 26 November 1949.

• Describes the basic philosophy of the Constitution.

• Begins with: “We, the People of India”.

Five key ideals:

• Sovereign – Independent authority.

• Socialist – Social and economic justice.

• Secular – Equal respect for all religions.

• Democratic – Government elected by people.

• Republic – Elected head of State.

Objectives:

• Justice: Social, Economic, Political.

• Liberty: Thought, Expression, Belief, Faith, Worship.

• Equality: Status and Opportunity.

• Fraternity: Dignity, Unity and Integrity.

Important facts:

• 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 added Socialist, Secular and Integrity.

• Preamble is part of the Constitution (Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973).

• Preamble is not directly enforceable in courts.

• Preamble can be amended, but Basic Structure cannot be destroyed.

3. UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

• India currently has 28 States and 8 Union Territories.

• States Reorganisation Act: 1956.

• First linguistic state: Andhra State (1953).

• First State Reorganisation Commission: Fazl Ali Commission (1953).

• S.K. Dhar Commission: 1948.

4. CITIZENSHIP (ARTICLES 5–11)

• Part II of the Constitution.

• Articles 5–11 deal with citizenship.

• India follows single citizenship.

• Citizenship Act: 1955.

Methods of acquiring citizenship:

1. By birth.

2. By descent.

3. By registration.

4. By naturalisation.

5. By incorporation of territory.

Methods of losing citizenship:

• Renunciation.

• Termination.

• Deprivation.

Important: India does not provide dual citizenship in the conventional sense. OCI is not full Indian citizenship.

5. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (ARTICLES 12–35)

Fundamental Rights are contained in Part III.

Important Articles

Important points

• Article 32 was called the “Heart and Soul” of the Constitution by Dr. Ambedkar.

• Article 21 is available to citizens and non-citizens.

• Article 19 is available only to citizens.

• Right to Property was removed from Fundamental Rights by the 44th Amendment, 1978.

• Right to Property is now a constitutional/legal right under Article 300A.

• Right to Education became a Fundamental Right through the 86th Amendment, 2002.

Five Writs

• Supreme Court: Article 32.

• High Court: Article 226.

• High Courts can issue writs for Fundamental Rights and other legal rights.

6. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY (DPSP)

• Part IV: Articles 36–51.

• Borrowed from Irish Constitution.

• Non-justiciable (cannot be directly enforced by courts).

• Aim: Establish a welfare state.

Important: 42nd Amendment (1976) added Articles 39A, 43A and 48A.

7. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

• Part IVA.

• Article 51A.

• Added by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.

• Based on recommendations of Swaran Singh Committee.

• Originally 10 duties.

• 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th duty.

11 Fundamental Duties:

1. Respect the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem.

2. Follow ideals of the freedom struggle.

3. Protect sovereignty, unity and integrity.

4. Defend the country.

5. Promote harmony and brotherhood.

6. Preserve India’s composite culture.

7. Protect environment and show compassion for living creatures.

8. Develop scientific temper and humanism.

9. Safeguard public property and avoid violence.

10. Strive for excellence.

11. Parents/guardians must provide educational opportunities to children aged 6–14 years.

• Applicable to citizens only.

• Non-justiciable in nature.

8. PRESIDENT OF INDIA (ARTICLES 52–62)

• Constitutional Head of India.

• First President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

• Current President (November 2026): Droupadi Murmu.

Election:

• Indirect election.

• Elected by Electoral College.

• Includes elected MPs and elected MLAs of States, Delhi and Puducherry.

• Nominated MPs do not participate.

• Method: Proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.

• Secret ballot.

Qualifications:

• Indian citizen.

• Minimum age: 35 years.

• Qualified to become Lok Sabha member.

• Must not hold office of profit.

Term: 5 years.

Important Articles:

Powers:

• Executive powers.

• Legislative powers.

• Financial powers.

• Judicial powers.

• Diplomatic powers.

• Military powers.

• Emergency powers.

Veto Powers:

1. Absolute veto.

2. Suspensive veto.

3. Pocket veto.

Ordinance: Article 123.

9. VICE-PRESIDENT OF INDIA (ARTICLES 63–71)

• Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

• Second-highest constitutional office.

• First Vice-President: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.

• Current Vice-President (November 2026): C.P. Radhakrishnan.

Election:

• Elected by members of both Houses of Parliament (elected and nominated).

• State Legislative Assemblies do not participate.

• Proportional representation by single transferable vote.

• Secret ballot.

Term: 5 years.

Removal:

• Resolution passed by Rajya Sabha.

• Agreed to by Lok Sabha.

• 14 days’ prior notice required.

Article 65: Vice-President acts as President when required.

10. PRIME MINISTER & COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

• Real executive head of the Union Government.

• Appointed by President under Article 75.

• Usually leader of majority party/coalition in Lok Sabha.

• First Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru.

• Prime Minister is the link between President and Council of Ministers.

Important Articles

Important facts:

• Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha.

• Maximum size: 15% of Lok Sabha strength.

• 91st Amendment Act, 2003 introduced the 15% limit.

• Ministers hold office during the pleasure of President.

• Three categories: Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers.

11. PARLIAMENT OF INDIA (ARTICLES 79–122)

• Parliament consists of President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

• Bicameral legislature.

• First Lok Sabha constituted in 1952.

Lok Sabha (House of the People)

• Lower House / Popular House.

• Maximum elected strength: 550 (530 States + 20 UTs).

• Current elected strength: 543.

• Normal term: 5 years.

• Minimum age: 25 years.

• Presiding officer: Speaker.

• Money Bill introduced only in Lok Sabha.

• Can be dissolved by President.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

• Upper House / Permanent House.

• Maximum strength: 250.

• Constitutional maximum: 238 representatives of States/UTs + 12 nominated members.

• Current sanctioned strength: 245.

• 12 members nominated by President for literature, science, art and social service.

• Minimum age: 30 years.

• Permanent House; cannot be dissolved.

• One-third members retire every 2 years.

• Normal member’s term: 6 years.

• Presiding officer: Vice-President of India.

Important Articles

Parliamentary Sessions

1. Budget Session – Generally February to April/May.

2. Monsoon Session – Generally July to August.

3. Winter Session – Generally November to December.

• Maximum gap between two sessions: 6 months.

• Quorum: One-tenth of total membership.

Types of Bills

Money Bill:

• Introduced only in Lok Sabha.

• Requires President’s recommendation.

• Speaker certifies whether a Bill is a Money Bill.

• Rajya Sabha cannot reject or amend it.

• Rajya Sabha must return it within 14 days.

• No joint sitting for Money Bills.

Joint Sitting – Article 108

• Called by President.

• Presided over by Lok Sabha Speaker.

• Used to resolve deadlock between Houses.

• Not applicable to Money Bills and Constitutional Amendment Bills.

12. PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES

Important facts:

• PAC has 22 members (15 Lok Sabha + 7 Rajya Sabha).

• Estimates Committee has 30 Lok Sabha members.

• Committee on Public Undertakings has 22 members.

• Ministers are not members of these three financial committees.

• PAC Chairman is conventionally from the Opposition.

13. SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

• Part V, Chapter IV.

• Articles 124–147.

• Established: 28 January 1950.

• Located in New Delhi.

• Highest judicial authority.

• First Chief Justice: H.J. Kania.

Appointment and qualifications:

• Judges appointed by President.

• Minimum age is not prescribed.

• Must be a citizen of India and satisfy one of these:

  • High Court judge for at least 5 years; or

  • High Court advocate for at least 10 years; or

  • Distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

• Retirement age: 65 years.

Important Articles

Jurisdiction:

1. Original jurisdiction.

2. Appellate jurisdiction.

3. Advisory jurisdiction.

4. Writ jurisdiction.

5. Review jurisdiction.

• Removal of SC judge: Impeachment-like parliamentary process.

• Grounds: Proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

• Retirement age: 65 years.

14. HIGH COURTS

• Articles 214–231.

• Highest judicial authority in a State.

• Retirement age of judges: 62 years.

• Judges appointed by President.

• Article 226: Writ jurisdiction.

• Article 227: Superintendence over subordinate courts.

• Article 215: Court of Record.

Difference between Supreme Court and High Court

15. GOVERNOR OF STATE

• Constitutional head of State.

• Articles 153–162.

• Appointed by President.

• First Governor-General of independent India: Lord Mountbatten (historical distinction); first Governor of an Indian State was Sarojini Naidu (United Provinces).

• Current Governors vary by State.

Qualifications:

• Indian citizen.

• Minimum age: 35 years.

• Must not hold office of profit.

• Must not be a member of Parliament or State Legislature.

Term: 5 years, subject to pleasure of President.

Important Articles

16. CHIEF MINISTER & STATE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

• Real executive head of State.

• Appointed by Governor.

• Article 164.

• Council of Ministers collectively responsible to Legislative Assembly.

• Maximum size: 15% of Legislative Assembly strength.

• Minimum number of ministers: 12 (subject to constitutional exceptions for small States).

• Chief Minister is the link between Governor and State Council of Ministers.

17. STATE LEGISLATURE

Two types:

1. Unicameral Legislature: Only Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha).

2. Bicameral Legislature: Legislative Assembly + Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).

• Article 168: State Legislature.

• Article 169: Creation or abolition of Legislative Council.

• Article 170: Legislative Assembly.

• Article 171: Legislative Council.

• Article 172: Duration of State Legislatures.

• Article 174: Sessions.

• Article 178: Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

• Article 200: Governor’s assent to Bills.

Important: Parliament can create or abolish a State Legislative Council by law after the State Assembly passes a resolution with a special majority.

18. FEDERAL SYSTEM & CENTRE–STATE RELATIONS

India is a federal system with a strong Centre.

Legislative Relations – Articles 245–255

Seventh Schedule contains three lists:

Important:

• Residuary powers: Parliament (Article 248).

• Concurrent List conflict: Generally Union law prevails (Article 254).

• 42nd Amendment transferred 5 subjects from State to Concurrent List: Education, Forests, Weights and Measures, Protection of Wild Animals and Birds, and Administration of Justice.

Administrative Relations: Articles 256–263.

Financial Relations: Articles 268–293.

Inter-State Council: Article 263.

GST Council: Article 279A.

Finance Commission: Article 280.

19. EMERGENCY PROVISIONS (ARTICLES 352–360)

Borrowed from the German Constitution (Weimar Constitution).

National Emergency

• Declared by President.

• Written recommendation of Union Cabinet required.

• Parliamentary approval within 1 month.

• Special majority required.

• Continues for 6 months at a time, with repeated parliamentary approval.

• Article 19 is automatically affected only in emergencies on grounds of war or external aggression.

• Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended under Article 359.

Declared three times:

1. 1962 – China War.

2. 1971 – Indo-Pak War.

3. 1975 – Internal disturbance (the then constitutional ground).

44th Amendment, 1978:

• Replaced “internal disturbance” with “armed rebellion”.

• Made Cabinet’s written recommendation compulsory.

• Strengthened safeguards for Fundamental Rights.

President’s Rule

• Article 356.

• President acts on Governor’s report or otherwise.

• Parliamentary approval within 2 months.

• Approved for 6 months at a time.

• Maximum duration generally 3 years, subject to constitutional conditions.

Financial Emergency

• Article 360.

• Never imposed in India so far.

• Parliamentary approval within 2 months.

• No fixed maximum duration after approval.

20. PANCHAYATI RAJ SYSTEM

• 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.

• Came into force: 24 April 1993.

• Part IX: Articles 243–243O.

• 11th Schedule: 29 subjects.

• Based on democratic decentralisation.

Three-tier system:

1. Gram Panchayat – Village level.

2. Panchayat Samiti – Block level.

3. Zila Parishad – District level.

Important provisions:

• Gram Sabha: Article 243A.

• Reservation for SC/ST.

• At least one-third reservation for women (constitutional minimum).

• Tenure: 5 years.

• State Election Commission: Article 243K.

• State Finance Commission: Article 243I.

• Minimum age for Panchayat membership: 21 years.

Important Committees:

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957).

• Ashok Mehta Committee (1977).

• G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985).

• L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986).

24 April: National Panchayati Raj Day.

21. MUNICIPALITIES

• 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.

• Came into force: 1 June 1993.

• Part IXA: Articles 243P–243ZG.

• 12th Schedule: 18 subjects.

Three types:

1. Nagar Panchayat – Transitional area.

2. Municipal Council – Smaller urban area.

3. Municipal Corporation – Larger urban area.

Important:

• Article 243Q: Constitution of Municipalities.

• Article 243T: Reservation of seats.

• Article 243U: Duration.

• Article 243W: Powers and responsibilities.

• Article 243ZA: Elections.

• Article 243Y: Finance Commission.

22. ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA

• Article 324.

• Constitutional body.

• Established: 25 January 1950.

• Conducts elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, President and Vice-President.

• Does not conduct Panchayat and Municipal elections (State Election Commission does).

Important facts:

• Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are appointed by President under the applicable law.

• Tenure: 6 years or until age 65, whichever is earlier, subject to statutory provisions.

• CEC removal: Same manner and grounds as Supreme Court judge.

• Other Election Commissioners: Can be removed by President on recommendation of CEC.

25 January: National Voters’ Day.

23. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES

CAG – Comptroller and Auditor General

• Article 148.

• First CAG: V. Narahari Rao.

• Appointed by President.

• Tenure: 6 years or 65 years of age, whichever is earlier.

• Removal procedure: Same as Supreme Court judge.

• Audits Union and State government accounts.

• Known as the guardian of public purse.

UPSC

• Article 315.

• Constitutional body.

• Chairman and members appointed by President.

• Retirement age: 65 years or 6-year term, whichever is earlier.

• State PSC members: 62 years or 6-year term, whichever is earlier.

• Article 320: Functions of Public Service Commissions.

24. NON-CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES

Important:

• NITI Aayog replaced Planning Commission.

• Planning Commission established in 1950.

• CVC became a statutory body in 2003.

• CIC is a statutory body under RTI Act, 2005.

• NHRC is a statutory body under Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

• Lokpal is a statutory anti-corruption institution.

25. SCHEDULES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

22 Scheduled Languages

Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

Important:

• Originally 14 languages.

• 21st Amendment: Sindhi (1967).

• 71st Amendment: Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali (1992).

• 92nd Amendment: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali (2003).

• 96th Amendment: Oriya renamed Odia (2011).

26. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

Important examination facts:

• 42nd Amendment: Mini Constitution.

• 44th Amendment: Restored democratic safeguards after Emergency.

• 52nd Amendment: Anti-defection.

• 61st Amendment: Voting age 18 years.

• 73rd and 74th: Local self-government.

• 86th: Education.

• 101st: GST.

• 103rd: EWS reservation.

• 106th: Women’s reservation (implementation subject to constitutional conditions, including census and delimitation).

27. ANTI-DEFECTION LAW

• Added by 52nd Amendment Act, 1985.

• 10th Schedule.

• Applies to Parliament and State Legislatures.

Disqualification grounds:

1. Voluntarily giving up membership of political party.

2. Voting or abstaining against party direction without permission and without condonation within 15 days.

3. Independent member joining a political party after election.

4. Nominated member joining a political party after 6 months of taking seat.

Exception:

• Merger permitted if at least two-thirds of the legislative party agrees.

• Deciding authority: Speaker/Chairman.

• Decision subject to judicial review (Kihoto Hollohan case, 1992).

28. ELECTIONS & POLITICAL SYSTEM

Types of elections:

• Direct election: Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.

• Indirect election: President, Vice-President and Rajya Sabha.

Important terms:

Important facts:

• Article 326: Adult suffrage.

• Voting age: 18 years.

• Representation of the People Act, 1950: Electoral rolls and related matters.

• Representation of the People Act, 1951: Conduct of elections and qualifications/disqualifications.

• NOTA introduced in EVMs in 2013.

• Secret ballot protects voting choice.

29. OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF INDIA

• Article 343: Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union.

• International form of Indian numerals is used.

• English continues to be used for official purposes under the Official Languages Act, 1963.

• India has no constitutionally declared national language.

• Article 345: Official language(s) of a State.

• Article 348: Language of Supreme Court, High Courts, Acts and Bills.

• Article 350A: Mother-tongue instruction at primary stage for linguistic minorities.

• Article 351: Development of Hindi.

30. IMPORTANT SPECIAL PROVISIONS

31. IMPORTANT LANDMARK SUPREME COURT JUDGMENTS

32. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT & PARLIAMENTARY TERMS

Important:

• No-confidence motion can be introduced only in Lok Sabha.

• No-confidence motion does not require reasons.

• Zero Hour is not formally mentioned in the Constitution or Rules of Procedure.

• Question Hour is generally the first hour of a parliamentary sitting.

33. IMPORTANT NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS & THEIR HEADQUARTERS